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In Maningrida, northern Australia, code-switching is a commonplace phenomenon within a complex of both longstanding and more recent language practices characterised by high levels of linguistic diversity and multilingualism. Code-switching is observable between local Indigenous languages and is now also widespread between local languages and English and/or Kriol. In this paper, I consider whether general predictions about the nature and functioning of code-switching account for practices in the Maningrida context. I consider: (i) what patterns characterise longstanding code-switching practices between different Australian languages in the region, as opposed to code-switching between an Australian language and Kriol or English? (ii) how do the distinctions observable align with general predictions and constraints from dominant theoretical frameworks? Need we look beyond these factors to explain the patterns? Results indicate that general predictions, including the effects of typological congruence, account for many observable tendencies in the data. However, other factors, such as constraints exerted by local ideologies of multilingualism and linguistic purism, as well as shifting socio-interactional goals, may help account for certain distinct patterns in the Maningrida data.

This text explores the experiences of indigenous children and young adults around the world as they navigate the formal education system and wider society. Profiling a range of different communities and sociolinguistic contexts, this book examines the language ecologies of their local communities, schools and wider society and the approaches taken by these communities to maintain children's home languages. The authors examine such complex themes as curriculum, translanguaging, contact languages and language use as cultural practice. In doing so, this edited collection acts as a first step towards developing solutions which address the complexity of the issues facing these children and young people.

Effective diagnosis of Johne's disease (JD), particularly at the stage of early subclinical infection, remains one of the greatest challenges for the control of JD worldwide. The IFN-γ test of cell mediated immunity is currently one of the most suitable diagnostics for subclinical infections, however a major limitation of this test is the lack of a standardised purified protein derivative (PPD) antigen (also referred to as Johnin PPD or PPDj). While attempting to replace PPDj with more specific individual antigens is an attractive proposition, bacterial culture derived PPDj remains the most effective antigen preparation for the diagnosis of subclinical JD. It may be possible to increase the reproducibility and specificity of PPDj preparations by further characterising and standardising the PPDj production. Using a standardised protocol, five in-house preparations of PPDj were prepared from cultures of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). Compared to PPDs obtained from other institutes/laboratories, these preparations appeared to perform similarly well in the IFN-γ test. Although the broad proteomic composition of all PPDj preparations was remarkably similar, the absolute abundance of individual proteins varied markedly between preparations. All PPDj preparations contained common immunogenic proteins which were also observed in PPD preparations from Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium (PPDa) and Mycobacterium bovis (PPDb). Temporal difference in protein secretion of in vitro cultured MAP was observed between 20 and 34 weeks suggesting that the age of MAP culture used for PPDj preparations may markedly influence PPDj composition. This study describes a protocol for the production of PPDj and its subsequent proteomic characterisation. The broad proteomic composition of different preparations of PPDj was, for the most part, highly similar. Compositional differences between PPDj preparations were found to be a direct reflection of genetic differences between the MAP strain types used to produce these preparations and the age of MAP cultures they were derived from. A number of conserved immunogenic proteins, such as members of the cutinase-like protein family, were found to be more abundant in PPDj compared to PPDa and should be considered as possible diagnostic antigens for the future.

This chapter focuses on language contact in Australia. The story of Australian language contact begins well before colonization but the most rapid changes have occurred in communities since colonization. The chapter profiles language contact outcomes that are attested in the Australian context: pidgins and creoles, mixed languages, koines and new dialects, restructured traditional languages, and Aboriginal Englishes. It considers the ongoing difficulties caused by language contact and the education system, finding that misunderstandings about anything other than English‐medium instruction are still perpetuated across the majority of the country. The chapter presents two distinct case studies about language contact in Australia: the first focused on two small locations within Victoria and the second on diffusion and code‐switching in Arnhem Land in Australia's remote north.

This chapter explores the ways a community-based bilingual school in the Tekoá Marangatu Indigenous community in Brazil supports and/or hinders the continuing development of the home language of Mbya Guarani children. It also highlights how first- and third-grade Mbya Guarani children engage in translanguaging and look to their peers in making the sociolinguistic and sociocultural transition from home to the school context. The constant transformation of this reservation has been reshaping the social structures and activities the Guarani perform on a daily basis, yielding new forms of literacy. Even though Portuguese is the dominant language in the school context, both adults and children use Guarani as a way to navigate and resist the pressures of homogenization exerted by the outside world. Children are seen as social actors who transmit knowledge among themselves, the adults in their lives and the different contexts in which they live and experience bilingualism, biculturalism and biliteracy.

School is a turning point for most children—a time when they leave their preschool years and embark on several years of schooling. While this challenges most children, the challenge is greater for children who enter the school system without previous access to the language of education. This is particularly the case for a proportion of Indigenous children across the world. This chapter explores and contextualises the complex range of challenges these children face, discusses solutions and relates them to the chapters which follow.

This chapter presents a case study of Yirrkala School, a remote Indigenous school in the Northern Territory of Australia that has succeeded in maintaining its long-standing bilingual programme in spite of great pressure to move towards a mainstream, English-only model. Bilingual policy and education in the region is discussed, and the history and current realities of Yirrkala School itself are described. The chapter draws on a set of interviews conducted in 2015–16 with community members intimately involved with designing and implementing the local school curriculum, as well as on various community-based publications spanning several decades. These are used to articulate local perspectives on the role of language and culture in the classroom and the journey of two-way education in Yirrkala.